Cristina+Zegarra+2ºF

toc =**My Code Of Conduct:**=


 * 1) I will never upload images of my friends or myself on the internet.
 * 2) I will never put my [[image:http://cdncache-a.akamaihd.net/items/it/img/arrow-10x10.png height="10"]] information.
 * 3) I will not tell my password to my friends.
 * 4) I will only accept people that i know.
 * 5) When I switch off the computer I have to remember to logout my account.
 * 6) I will be polite.
 * 7) If I have problems with anyone I have to tell it to the teacher or my parents, this is very important because the perpretator could hurt you.
 * 8) Watch out with the [[image:http://cdncache-a.akamaihd.net/items/it/img/arrow-10x10.png height="10"]] you are talking to.
 * 9) Do not bully anyone,if you know about any case you must warn an adult.
 * 10) Just login into the pages which have an age policy adecuated to my age.

I, Cristina promise to follow time rules wherever I use the Internet, so that I can make the Internet a little place for everybody.

__My country facts:__ __Democratic Republic of the Congo__

> > === __People:__ === > === The people from this contry is called //**congolese.**// === > === === > ===The mos-practised religion is the Christianity(about 79% of the population that follow this religion in 2012/80% of the population that follow this religion in 2013)but its not the official religion. === > === __Flag:__ === > ===The red colour represents the people's blood. === > ===The yellow colour represents the prosperity. === > ===The blue colour represents the hope. === > ===The star represents the unity. === > === __Goverment:__ === > ===The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a democratic state. === > ===The head of the State is Joseph Kabila. === > ===The type of goverment is republic,which means that the in this country there are elected representatives that know and understand the laws better and are informed of the laws better than the general public. Those elected officials are voting on those laws for the people. === > ===In the Democratic Republic of the Congo there is a separation of the powers. === > === * Legislative power =>Senate (108 seats:members elected by provincial assemblies to serve five-year terms) and a National Assembly (500 seats; 61 members elected by majority vote in single-member constituencies, 439 members elected by open list proportional-representation in multi-member constituencies to serve five-year terms) === > === * Judicial power =>is organized hierarchically, in accordance with the country's administrative and political structure.At the apex is the Supreme Court of Justice in Kinshasa. Under it, in descending order, are three courts of appeal in Kinshasa, Lubumbashi, and Kisangani. === > === *Executive power => === > ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">President:Joseph Kabila === > ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Prime minister:Augustin Matata Ponyo === > ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Some political parties: === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name**__:Alliance for Congo's Renewal (Alliance pour le Renouveau du Congo/ARC) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader**__:Olivier Kamitatu Etsu === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name**__:Christian Democracy (Démocratie Chrétienne/DC) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader**__:Eugène Diomi Ndongala === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name**__:Christian Democrats Party (Parti des Démocrates Chrétiens/PDC) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader**__:José Endundo Bononge === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name**__:Christian Republican Party (Parti Chrétien Républicain/PCR) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader**__:Gilbert Kiakwama Kiakiziki === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Congolese National Movement–Lumumba (Mouvement National Congolais–Lumumba/MNC–L) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__François Lumumba === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Congolese Rally for Democracy–Goma (Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie/RCD–G) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__Azarias Ruberwa === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Congolese Rally for Democracy–Kisangani-Liberation Movement (Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie–Kisangani–Mouvement de Libération/RCD–K–ML) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__Antipas Mbusa Myanwisi === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Congolese Solidarity for Democracy (Solidarité Congolaise pour la Démocratie/SCODE) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__Jean Claude Muyambo === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Democrats of the Democratic Republic of Congo (Le Démocrate, République Démocratique du Congo) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__A. Mande Monga === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Democratic Social Christian Party (Parti Démocrate Social Chrétien/PDSC) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__André Bo-Boliko Lokonga === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Federalist Christian Democracy – Convention of Federalists for Christian Democracy (Démocratie Chrétienne Fédéraliste – Convention des Fédéralistes pour la Démocratie Chrétienne/DCF–COFEDEC) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__Venant Tshipasa (Pierre Pay Pay Presidential candidate) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Liberal Christian Democrats Union (Union des Libéraux Démocrates Chrétiens/ULDC) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__Raymond Tshibanda === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Movement for the Liberation of Congo (Mouvement pour la Liberation du Congo/MLC) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__National Alliance Party for Unity (Parti de l'Alliance Nationale pour l'Unité/PANU) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__André-Philippe Futa === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__NATIONAL PEOPLE's PATRIOTIC PARTY OF the Congo - DRC / NPPPC (NOUVEAU PARTI PATRIOTIQUE DU PEUPLE CONGOLAIS/ NPPPC) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__Sapard Vincent-de Paul Mozes Mulumba Ngandu Tshimankinda KALALA Candidat Présidentiel - [ Presidential candidate 2011 ] === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Parti Travailliste Congolais (PTC) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__ Thomas Ilenda Touzayamoko === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (Parti du Peuple pour la Reconstruction et la Démocratie/PPRD) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__Évariste Boshab === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Popular Movement of the Revolution/Nzuzi Faction (Mouvement Populaire de la Revolution/Fait Privé/MPR-FP) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__:Catherine Nzuzi wa Mbombo === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">*__**Party name:**__Union for the Republic National Movement/UNIR NM (Union pour la République - Mouvement national/UNIR MN) === > === <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">__**Party leader:**__Boyenga Bofala === > ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">The democratic Republic of the Congo was a Belgian Colony and it gained the indepedence by the revolution of the congelese against the Belgian Empire. === > === __Population:__ === > ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">81,680,000 and the population density is about 33.01/km2. === > ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Birth rate:35.62 births/1,000 population === > ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Death rate:10.3 deaths/1,000 population === > ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Natural growth:Positive === > ===<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">The Democratic Republic of Congo is unfortunately synonymous with its dreadful past and its terrible present, despite its beauty, complex history and unachieved potential. Locked not only into its own internal troubles but also into those of the Great Lakes region, it has provided more than enough material on forced migration, violence and political quagmires. === > > > __**Migrations**__ >
 * 1) ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">The official name of the country is <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">**République Democratique du Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo)** ===
 * 2) ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">This country is located in South Central Africa with a narrow strip of land on the northern bank of the Zaire River. It is bound by the Republic of Congo and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Angola to the southwest, Zambia to the southeast, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda to the east, Sudan to the northeast and the Central African Republic to the north and northwest. ===
 * 3) ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;"> The **Democratic Republic of the Congo** united in  ===
 * 4) ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">he UN in the 20/09/1960. ===


 * 1) ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">Of my point of view (From a person of Congo),there aren't inmigrants,on the contrary,a lot of people emigrate to other countries because of the famines,wars,poverty,illneses (such as the VIH)...etc.(emigrants)Most of the emigrants go to develop countries or even the Republic of the Congo. ===


 * 1) ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">The population is in danger because of the illnesses,the IOM's(Inmigration organization for the migrations) ===
 * 2) ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">migration health activities aim to provide equitable access to health-care services and psychosocial support for migrants, mobile populations, internally displaced persons and other vulnerable persons, including victims of sexual and gender-based violence. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a high disease burden country, particularly in terms of HIV, tuberculosis and malaria and other communicable diseases. IOM intends to engage with the Ministry of Health’s national programmes on HIV, tuberculosis and malaria to ensure that migrant-inclusive policies and health services are included in their respective national strategies and action plans. ===


 * 1) ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">IOM also assists migrants wishing to travel to the United Kingdom with tuberculosis examination. Finally, IOM continues to cooperate with partners to integrate the Democratic Republic of the Congo within regional bodies, such as the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region. ===


 * 1) ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">Imagine you live in a country where armed insurgent and government troops ravage and pillage local villages, one in three people are out of work, nearly half of all women are unable to read, and the average person lives on less than two dollars a day.Now ask yourself, “What would take to get me to stay here instead of running for the nearest national border?” While you may never be faced with this situation in your own lifetime, it is a stark reality for the citizens of one of Africa’s most populated nations, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).International migration is a source of tension between nations, as well as the citizens of the host country. This becomes obvious by a quick examination of recent migration issues throughout the world. As migrants move into a host country, they can place added stress on host country resources, as well as disrupting the political status quo in the region where they settle. ===


 * 1) ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">The Democratic Republic of Congo is a country with a vast amount of economic potential,however, corrupt leadership and continual warfare has put the nation on the brink of collapse. Understanding the role migration plays in the stability of the nation is vital to building sound foreign policies to mitigate the problems occurring in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. ===

===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">The DRC is located in South Central Africa with a narrow strip of land on the northern bank of the Zaire river.It's bound by the Republic of Congo and the Atlatic Ocean to the west, Angola to the southwest,Zambia to the southeast,Tanzania,Burundi,Rwanda and Uganda to the east,Sudan to the northeast and the Central African Republic to the north and northwest. ===

<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">__3=>__ High mountains which include the Ngoma, Virunga, Ruwenzori, Blue, Kundelunga and Marungu Mountains that enclose the country to the north.
===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">__4=>__The coastline of Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire), which is also bordered by a tiny plain. The principal river is the Zaire which flows into the Atlantic Ocean and nearly drains the entire country. ===

<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">__**Negative
>**__There are a lot of rainforests and because of the large amouts of water and a lot of deforestation. ===

<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">__**Positive
>**__Although there is a lot of deforestation there are a lot fauna and flora,and there is live thanks to the water. ===

===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire) is crossed by the Equator and the seasons are reversed in the north and south. Both regions have two short wet seasons and two short dry seasons while the central area has an equatorial climate with an average annual precipitation of 1,700 mm (67 inches). In general, humidity remains high and winds are light while the coastal area has a tropical climate. ===

<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">__**Positive
>**__Thanks to the tropical climate there is a lot of fauna and flora.The temperature is stable throughout the year. ===

<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">__**Negative
>**__Because of the (high)temperatures the food decomposes.Proliferation of mosquitoes and urban pests.In some occasions it rains all the week. ===

===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">**Unemployment Rate** in Congo decreased to 46.10 percent in 2013 from 49.10 percent in 2012. Unemployment Rate in Congo averaged 52.07 percent from 1999 until 2013, reaching an all time high of 66.90 percent in 2000 and a record low of 45.40 percent in 2004. Unemployment Rate in Congo is reported by the Banque Centrale du Congo. ===

<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">**The DRC was a net of energy exporter.**
===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">**Electricity**: It has reserves of petroleum,natural gas,coal and a potential hydroelectric power generating capacity of around 100,000 MW.It the potential capacity to generate 40,000 to 45,000 MW of electric power, sufficient to supply the electricity needs of the whole Southern Africa region. ===

<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">**Petroleum**:reserves that are second only to Angola's in southern Africa.
===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">**Coal:**reported to have coal reserves of 97 million short tons. Domestic coal production and consumption in 2003 totaled 0.11 million short tons and 0.26 million shorts tons, respectively. ===

>> Endemic diseases:malaria,yellow fever >> Disease outbreaks:ebola,cholera >> Maternal and child healthcare >> UN >> IRC >> UNICEF >
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">Some issues that affect the DRC in domestic policy were the conflict between tribes. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">Health in the DRC have problems that have been a long-standing issue that ===
 * <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">limited development.
 * <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">Education in the DRC is governed by three goverments ministries
 * <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">International organizations for education:
 * <span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">Belgium is the first country to have an income tax treaty in force with the DRC.

__Foreign policy:__

 * ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">Most of the current issues that affect and affected the DRC were struggles. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">This country is bordered by numerous nations with whim it has had conflicts. ===
 * ===<span style="font-family: Arimo,sans-serif;">For example when the DRC wanted the indepedence. ===

=INTRODUCTION= Hello,my name is Cristina and this is my wikispace.I'm going to show you basic information about Charles V/I and more things.I hope you like it and we start

= Carlos I. =

Basic information.
Charles(Carlos) was born in the Flemish city of Ghent .He was son of Juana of Castile (daughter of Fernidand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile) and of Philip the Handsome. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">After the death of his grandfather Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1516, Charles was crowned in as sole ruler in his own right and the first legitimate King of Spain and chief executive of the Crown (of Aragon) Corporation under charter from the Holy See.

Young Carlos I (Charles V)

Videos of Charles I/V
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Empire of Charle V (Carlos I).
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">The culture and courtly life of the Burgundian Low Countries were an important influence in his early life. He was tutored by William de Cröy (who would later become his first prime minister), and also by Adrian of Utrecht (later Pope Adrian VI). It is said that Charles spoke several vernacular languages: he was fluent in French, andFlemish, later adding an acceptable Spanish which was required by the Castlian Cortes Generales as a condition for becoming King os Castile. He also gained a decent command of German (in which he was not fluent prior to his election), though he never spoke it as well as French.A witticism sometimes attributed to Charles is: **"I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men and German to my horse."** <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">From his Burgundian ancestors he inherited an ambiguous relationship with the Kings of France. Charles shared with France his mother tongue and many cultural forms. In his youth he made frequent visits to Paris, then the largest city of Western Europe. In his words: "Paris is not a city, but a universe". He was betrothed to both Louise andCharlotte of Valois, daughters of King Francis I of France, but they both died in childhood. Charles also inherited the tradition of political and dynastic enmity between the Royal and the Burgundian Ducal lines of the Valois Dinasty. Charles was very attached to the Burgundian Low Countries where he had been raised. These lands were very rich and contributed significantly to the wealth of the Empire. He also spent much time there, mainly at Brussels. This stands in contrast with the attitude of his son Philip who only went once to the Low Countries. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Until the 1540s, Charles did not spend much time in Germany, though he was frequently quite close to it (in the Netherlands or North Italy). He never actually governed his Austrian dominions and made his brother Ferdinand the effective ruler of these lands as well as his representative in the Holy Roman Empire during his absence. In spite of this, the Emperor had a close relationship with some German families, like the House of Nassau, many of which were represented at his court in Brussels. Some German princes or noblemen accompanied him in his military campaigns against France or the Ottomans and the bulk of his army was generally composed of German troops, especially the Imperial [|Landsknechte]. Indeed, in 1519, he was elected because he was considered a German prince while his main opponent was French. Nonetheless, in the long term, the growth of Lutheranism and Charles' staunch Catholicism alienated him from various German princes who finally fought against him in the 1540s and the 1550s. It is important to note, though, that other states of the Empire chose to support him in his war, and that he had the constant support of his brother, in spite of their strained personal relationship.Whereas Charles spent much of his final years as a ruler trying to address the issue of religion in the Empire, it would ultimately be Ferdinand, by then much more popular in Germany, who would bring peace to the German lands. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Though Spain was the core of his personal possessions and though he had many Iberian ancestors, Charles was never totally assimilated and especially in his earlier years felt as if he were viewed as a foreign prince. He could not speak Spanish very well until quite late in his life, as it was not his primary language. Nonetheless, he spent much of his life in Spain, including his final years in a Spanish monastery, and his heir was raised a Spaniard. Indeed, Charles's motto, Plus Ultra ('Further Beyond'), became the national motto of Spain. He had many Spanish counselors and, except for the revolt of the comuneros in the 1520s, Spain remained mostly loyal to him. Spain was also an important military asset, as it provided a great number of generals, as well as the formidable Spanish tercios, considered the best infantry of its time. Many Spaniards, however, believed that their resources were being used to sustain a policy that was not in the country's interest.They usually believed that Charles should have focused on the Mediterranean and North Africa instead of Northern or Central Europe.



Family of Charles V (Carlos I).
+Charles V was the grandson of the Catholic Monarchs,and the granson of Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian I +Also he was the son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna the Mad +He married with his cousin,Isabel of Portugal and he had six sons (3 daugthers and 4 male sons): -Phlip II -Maria de Austria -Fernando -Juana de Austria -Juan -Juan (he was the last son of Isabel and Phlip because Isabel died in the birth)

=Prezi of Charles V.=

media type="prezi" key="fzpue3obdq1c" width="550" height="400" Here's my prezi Here is the link of the prezi if you can't see it: https://prezi.com/fzpue3obdq1c/untitled-prezi/

=Voki of Charles V (Carlos I).=

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=Interview.=

Here is an interview made to Charles V (Carlos I),the son of Joanna The Mad and Philip The Handsome:

-What do you think about the metal problem of Joanna The Mad? Well I think that the problem of my mother its true.She has a strange behavior after the death of my father.

-Are you agree of govern the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon with Joanna The Mad? Well,actually my mother must govern the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon with my father,but,my father is dead and she has a mental disease,so I must govern this with her.

-What do you think when Fernando II,your grandfather,wanted to govern the Crow of Castile and the Crown of Aragom? Well I think in that momment I was a child,but,that was unfair.In the testament said that the son of Isabel I will govern.This was the Concordia of Segovia.

-What possesions did you gave to your brother? I gave the Holy roman Empire.

-Okay,thak you very much for the interview.We will see you in other interview.Bye bye.



=PowToon=

[]

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=Lutheran's Revolt=

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Martin Luther (1483-1546) is typical of his time in that he expressed the need for reform of the church, and a deep yearning for salvation. He was born in Saxony, the son of a copper miner and self made man. His father had hoped he would become a lawyer, and had earned a Master’s degree by age 21. However, while walking home from school one afternoon, he was caught in a violent thunderstorm, and narrowly missed a lightning strike. He prayed to St. Anne, the patron saint of miners, and vowed to become a monk if saved from the storm. He kept his word and entered a monastery without consulting his father, and was ordained a priest in 1507 He later earned a doctorate in theology, and became Professor of Scriptures at Wittenberg University where he was immensely popular with his students.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther was the “extreme” friar, following routine to the letter, but even his strict adherence did not relieve him from anxiety about sin. In attempt to alleviate Luther’s anxiety, his confessor, John Staupitz, told him to study the apostles of Paul in the New Testament. Luther’s study led him to a new understanding of the New Testament, especially the words of Paul in Romans 1:17: “the just shall live by faith.” (This remark from Paul actually originated in the Old Testament in Habakkuk 2:4.) Luther thus concluded that salvation did not come from penance or external observations, but through simple faith in Christ.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">The Problem of Indulgences and the Ninety-five Theses: Indulgences originated in the thirteenth century when theologians promulgated the theory of a “treasury of merit.” The Church had always maintained that “good works” were an essential part of salvation. One must perform some good work as an atonement for sin. This good work might consist of reciting the rosary, or making a pilgrimage. The “treasury of merit” was the idea that Jesus during his life on earth, as well as the saints and disciples, had been better than they needed to be to achieve salvation. Their “excess merit” accumulated, but could be redistributed by Christ’s emissary on earth, the Pope, to those who needed it. One could literally borrow (or buy) the goodness of another. Indulgences were first used during the Crusades, when those who went on Crusade were promised a reward in heaven should they die fighting for the cause. Later, indulgences were sold as a method of shortening one’s time in Purgatory (where sins were purged, thus enabling one to go to heaven.) The doctrine soon devolved to the point where one could purchase indulgences for the dead, there by shortening their time in purgatory, and perhaps even buying their way into heaven. After all, what self respecting person wouldn’t want to help grandma get on to her just deserts?

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">The sale of indulgences soon became an important source of revenue for the church, and a cesspool of corruption. So called “pardoners’ often peddled religious relics, etc. with all the zeal of a modern day used car salesman, complete with sales pitch. A classic example of the abuse of sale of indulgences is contained in the Prologue to the Pardoner’s Tale in the Canterbury Tales:


 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">"Masters," quoth he, "in churches, when I preach, **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> I am at pains that all shall hear my speech, **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> And ring it out as roundly as a bell, **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> For I know all by heart the thing I tell. **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> My theme is always one, and ever was: **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> 'Radix malorum est cupiditas.' **

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">The last phrase translates roughly, “money is the root of all evil.” The pardoner then boasts of how he slyly separates those who hear his sermon from their dirty money. If you have never read the tale, do yourself a favor, including the Host’s response to the Pardoner. Your English teacher will love you, and your history teacher might (just might) find it in his heart to grant extra credit.) <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther’s challenge to the sale of Indulgences arose from a complicated transaction. Wittenberg, where he taught, was under the jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Magdeburg. The Archbishop of Magdeburg, one Albert (all of twenty seven years old) also wanted to be appointed archbishop of Mainz. This was pluralism at its most blatant, and he needed a papal dispensation to get it. The Pope, Leo X, needed money to complete the building of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, and sold the dispensation to Albert for an enormous sum. Albert borrowed the money from the Fugger banking family of Germany, and Leo authorized Albert to sell indulgences to repay the loan. This was a real sweetheart deal; so much so that the details were kept secret from all but a trusted few. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Albert hired a Dominican Friar, Johan Tetzel, to sell the indulgences. Tetzel had all the talent of a modern day televangelist; begging, shaming and shouting all at once. He had devised his own little jingle: <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">As soon as a coin in the coffer rings.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Another soul from purgatory rings. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Tetzel even had a chart showing a particular price for the indulgence of a particular sin. Here again, think of poor old grandma burning in purgatory—and just a few coins in the old tin cup will get her outta there; wouldn’t you sleep better at night? <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther’s problem with this system was that it appeared to be “salvation for sale.” One need do nothing other than pay the price to obtain forgiveness. Repentance was not part of the package. The church had no established doctrine on indulgences, which to Luther meant that it was a proper subject for debate. He therefore wrote a letter to Archbishop Albert (who was profiting from Tetzel’s work) and in it enclosed in Latin his “Ninety Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences.” In it he argued that the sale of indulgences undermined the seriousness of penance, a sacrament; and interfered with preaching the Gospel. By December, 1517, Luther’s theses had been translated into German and were widely read throughout the Holy Roman Empire. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">After Luther’s death, his disciple, Philipp Melanchthon, claimed that Luther had nailed the theses to the door of the Church in Wittenberg as an invitation to debate on October 31, 1517. There is substantial argument that this never happened. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther’s argument was that there was no biblical basis for indulgences. This was a challenge to the Pope’s authority to issue indulgences. In a debate in Leipzig with a papal legate, Luther denied that the Pope’s authority and that church councils were infallible. To add insult to injury, he said the decision of the Council of Constance to burn John Hus had been a mistake. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Pope Leo X responded by condemning Luther’s work, and ordering his books to be burned. Leo issued a Papal Bull, Exsurge Domine (Arise, Lord) which gave Luther two months to recant, or be excommunicated. Luther publicly burned the letter delivering the Pope’s decision as an act of defiance. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">By this point, the issue had become larger than Luther ever dreamed. It became an issue of German nationalism. Luther’s students supported him unreservedly. He gained much sympathy from the followers of Hus (Hussites) because in his sympathy for Hus. The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, was a devoted Catholic, but many of the princes who controlled the myriad principalities of Germany supported Luther. (Luther’s position gave them freedom from the authority of the Pope). Charles needed the support of the princes to raise an army, as the French were invading the empire on the West, and the Ottoman Turks on the East. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">The Pope issued a Bull of Excommunication, Decet Romanum Pontificem (“It is fitting that the Pope” and expected Charles V to carry out the order. Charles waffled, and instead called a special Diet (an assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire) to meet at Worms at which Luther was summoned. Luther was ordered to recant at the Diet, but responded in words that rang throughout Europe: <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Unless I am convinced by the evidence of the scripture or by plain reason—for I do not accept the authority of the Pope or the councils alone, since it is established that they have often erred and contradicted themselves—I am bound to the Scriptures I have cited and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything, for it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. God help me. Amen. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Charles declared Luther an outlaw, but another German prince, Duke Frederick of Saxony, protected him. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">It is impossible to underestimate the role of the printing press in Luther’s revolution. His ideas were disseminated throughout Germany, in Latin and German. There were few educated people who were not familiar with his ideas. It is doubtful at best if Luther’s reformation would have succeeded so fully were it not for the influence of the press. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Between 1520 and 1530, Luther wrote a number of books and treatises outlining his basic theology, which became known as Protestant. The term originated from a small group of German Princes at the Diet of Speyer, which “protested” the decisions of the Catholic majority.) <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> The Catholic Church had maintained that salvation came from faith and good works. Luther said that salvation came from faith alone. God, not people, initiated salvation. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> The Catholic church held that religious authority rested in the Bible and the traditional teachings of the Church. The Pope, as the Vicar of Christ, was virtually infallible in matters of doctrine. Luther said that the Bible alone was the sole authority, and should be interpreted by one’s conscience. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> The Catholic church was based on a defined hierarchy with the Pope at the head. Luther spoke of the “priesthood of all believers” in which all were equal before God and all could approach God without the need for a priest or confessor to intervene. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> The Catholic Church had taught that there were seven sacraments. (an act which demonstrated the visible means of God’s grace: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Holy Orders, Matrimony, Penance, and Last Rites. Luther said there were only three: Baptism, Penance, and the Eucharist. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> The significance of the Eucharist was also a matter of debate. The Church taught a doctrine of transubstantiation, derived from the scholastics adaptation of Aristotle. Transubstantiation held that the bread and wine of the Eucharist were transformed into the actual blood and body of Christ. Luther taughtConsubstantiation: Christ was present at the Eucharist, but the bread and wine were not transformed. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Other Church reformers had different views of the Eucharist. Ulrich Zwingli, a Swiss reformer, said that the Last Supper was a memorial of the Last Supper of Jesus with his disciples, but no change took place in any form. John Calvin taught that the body and blood of Jesus were spiritually but not physically present. Zwingli and Calvin are discussed later. > <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> Social Impact of the Lutheran Reformation: Two factors present since medieval times created fertile ground for Luther’s ideas: <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> 1. City governments had long resented the privileges and immunities enjoyed by churchmen. They paid no taxes, and were exempt from military service, even in time of war; yet they tended to be immensely wealthy. An example is the city of Zurich, Switzerland, where religious orders held one third the city’s taxable property, but paid no tax.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">2. Sermons were typically poor quality, a fact which offended townspeople who, with the Renaissance, had become more informed and educated. A number of wealthy burghers (leading citizens) established “preacherships” in their towns. Those who held these positions, “preachers,” were educated men who were required to deliver one hundred sermons per year, each roughly 45 minutes in length. Preachers became important protestant leaders, and encouraged Protestant worship in which the sermon, not the Eucharist, became the central focus of worship. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther was also popular in rural areas, because he had himself come from peasant stock. The peasants also responded to his defiance to church authority. In a treatise entitled On Christian Liberty, Luther commented that “A Christian man is the most free lord of all, and subject to none.” His words significantly contributed to peasant unrest. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Educated people and humanists were attracted to Luther’s call for a simpler, more personal form of religion. The reforms he had called for echoed the reforms urged by the Northern Humanists. Luther reached a broader audience because of the printing press, and because of his skill with languages. His German translation of the New Testament in 1523 led to the acceptance of his German dialect (haupt deutsch) as the standard version of German. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Women were also affected by Luther’s movement, but not to the extent that men were. Protestant schools were established where girls learned the Bible and Catechism. Protestantism also abandoned the idea of celibacy. Luther once wrote to a young man: <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Dear lad, by not ashamed that you desire a girl, nor you my maid, the boy. Just let it lead into matrimony and not into promiscuity, and it is no more cause for shame than eating or drinking <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther led the way himself by marrying a former nun, Katherine von Bora, whom he called his “dear Katie.” After his marriage, he wrote <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Next to God’s Word, there is no more precious treasure than holy matrimony; God’s highest gift on earth is a pious, cheerful, God fearing home- keeping wife, with whom you may live peacefully to whom you may entrust your goods and body and life. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Still, Luther believed that a woman’s place was in the home, and should be devoted exclusively to her children. The husband should rule the household, but the wife should control household expenses and manage the home. Luther fathered several children by her, and delighted in his children. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther and the Peasants' War: A number of violent peasant revolts broke out in 1523. The most violent was the "German Peasants' War (1524-1526). Peasant insurrection had become almost traditional. The peasants had been exploited ruthlessly by clerical and noble landlords. They were often forced to sell to the landlord at unfairly low prices, and local customs were often violated with abandon. As landlords sought to centralize their power, local custom was replaced with Roman law. In some areas, there were attempts to re-bind the peasants to the land, a revival of medieval serfdom Ironically, Astrologers had long predicted that 1524 was to be a year of disaster. There was a popular saying: "He who does not die in 1523, does not drown in 1524, and is not killed in 1525 can only speak of miracles." <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther's emphasis on the "priesthood of all believers" lent itself to the position of the peasants. Many believed this was an invitation for them to take over control of their own lives. Many villages insisted on the right to elect their own clergy. Peasants justified their demands on the basis of traditional law and also in terms of scripture. Those involved in the rebellion often used slogans speaking of “God’s righteousness,” and “the Word of God.” In short, the peasants believed they were obeying God’s will by rebelling against their landlords. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther sympathized with the peasants, but was opposed to violence by peasant or noble. He believed that social and economic differences should be addressed peacefully and in an atmosphere of Christian love. When the peasants refused to lay down there arms, Luther became convinced that the devil was at work among them. He feared that rebellion would lead to anarchy and the end of civilized government. He therefore wrote a tract, Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants, in which he said, “let everyone who can smite, slay, and stab [the peasants] secretly and openly, for nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful or devilish than a rebel. The nobles crushed the revolt harshly. An estimated 75,000 peasants died. A number of peasants felt betrayed by Luther, and returned to Catholicism. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">As Luther grew older, he railed against anyone who disagreed with his views. In 1545, he published a pamphlet against the Pope, entitled Against the Papacy at Rome Founded by the Devil. When Pope Paul III opened a council to reform the church at Trent, Luther dismissed it as "too little too late." He was wrong. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther and the Jews: Luther was a workaholic most of his life, and as he aged, he suffered fluctuating mood swings. As he aged, he grew more and more troubled that not everyone agreed with his teachings. As he grew older, he increasingly compared himself with Paul of Tarsus, his biblical hero, as he believed God had revealed His greatest mysteries to him; but people were so steeped in pride and sin that they refused to accept the truth. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther suffered immensely when his 14 year old daughter, Magdalena, died in 1542. Shortly after her death, he exclaimed, : "I wish that I and all my children were dead. He was convinced that the Last Judgment was at hand, and that the world would be destroyed for its sin. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther had always defended the Jews, although he also believed that they were "money grubbers." Partly out of sorrow and partly from rage, he lashed out at the Jews in pamphlets that reeked with vitriol. In Against the Jews and Their Lies (1542). In it he urged authorities to burn synagogues and books, expel Jews from German cities, and refuse to do business with them if they did not convert to Christianity. On February 15, 1546, in his last sermon, he preached that "the Jews are our enemies, who do not cease to defame Christ and would gladly kill us all if they could." However, he preached, "we want to practice Christian love toward them and pray that they convert. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">In a sad irony, Luther's words were used in Nazi Germany by Hitler and other propagandists against the Jews in promoting their annihilation during the holocaust. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Political Impact of the Lutheran Revolution: Germany at the time of the Reformation was a loose confederation of independent principalities, duchies, etc. Because there was no centralized government, a substantial amount of wealth flowed from Germany to Rome Individual states were under the umbrella of the Holy Roman Empire, but the Emperor exercised little local control, other than military leadership. He was elected to the post by seven Electors. Religion was very much a political matter. Any religion different from that practiced by the majority of citizens was considered dangerous. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Luther’s opposition to the financial practices of the Catholic Church fell on welcome ears. His treatises and sermons were distinctly German, promoting a strong nationalist sentiment. A number of local authorities realized soon enough that by divesting themselves—and thereby their communities—of Catholicism, they could seize Church property and avoid payment of church taxes. Many therefore converted to Lutheranism and adopted Luther’s doctrines. They used the religion issue to declare their political and financial independence. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Against this wholesale departure from the established Church sat the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, a staunch Catholic. There was little Charles could do to stop the Lutheran movement. When he went to war against the King of France in the Hapsburg-Valois Wars, (1521-1555) during which most of the fighting occurred on German soil, the French King supported the Lutheran princes. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">The end result is that Germany, which might have been politically united into a single state, remained fragmented by religion. In 1555, Charles V signed the Peace of Augsburg, which officially recognized Lutheranism and allowed the local prince to determine the religion of his area. Most of the northern and central German states became Lutheran, while the South remained Roman Catholic. The primary churches in modern Germany are Roman Catholic, and "Protestant," meaning Lutheran. Lutheranism also found a home in Denmark, and Sweden, although not without a struggle. It is the leading Protestant denomination today in Scandinavia. Some areas, such as Finland, are almost exclusively Lutheran.

=**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Some images: **=

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">
 * <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">POPE LEO X **

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> **MARTIN LUTHER**

=Revolt of the Comuneros=

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">In February, Toledo kicked their Corregidor Real (something like a general manager) out and became an independent community. Other cities began to follow suit. The men behind these people where called the Comuneros (both because they belonged to the lower Spanish classes and were therefore "common" and also because they created "communities" regardless of the pre-existing borders). Soon many patriotic nobles decided to join them. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">With the coming of the summer in Spain, Adrian had resorted to violence to quell these comuneros revolts (because this is what rulers did with popular rebellions back then), which in turn made the Comuneros join tighter and create an armed Comunero force. Adrian, who may have been despotic and politically blind, was not stupid and fled the country in September. The Comuneros had accumulated such momentum, though, that they were not about to stop there. They went for the next authority after Adrian: Charles Vhimself. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">By November, the rebellion had escalated into an all-out revolution. It was so organised that the Comuneros already knew exactly what they wanted. They wanted to havecharle's mother, Joanna(nicknamed 'La Loca', 'The Mad', because the involuntary confinement Charles had subjected her to had driven her to develop a mental depression) named queen. They already held Tordesillas, the province where she was held captive. If that couldn't happen, they wanted Charles V to return and do his job as a king -- to live in Castile, to fill out his high offices with Castilians and to marry.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">The Final Confrontation
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Charles paid very little attention to the demands that originated in the comuneros revolts (in his defence, though, it must be said that ruling three kingdoms is not an easy job) but with the revolutions fuelled by countryside peasants, a lot of the rural nobility had no problem siding with him and fighting off the rebels. But when Queen Joan was taken from the Comuneros they retaliated with a crushing victory in the Battle of Torrelobaton in February 1521. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">In April 1521, the Comuneros lost all hope when they were defeated in the battle of Villalar. <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">This doesn't mean it was for naught. Charles V considered that events like these were too serious to ignore and started to spend more time in Spain, learned Spanish and named Castilians for his high office.

=<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">Some images: =